Practice Materials Part 1

You have to write an essay entitled: ‘There are many practical benefits to separating girls and boys for secondary education – Discuss’.

◊ In preparation you read the following two texts, which have opposing viewpoints. How reliable do you find the texts? Complete the following box with extracts from the texts and your critical comments.

1. The benefits of co-education

For both girls and boys co-education provides a more realistic way of training young people to take their places naturally in the wider community of men and women. It helps to break down the misconceptions of each sex about the other and provides an excellent foundation for the development of realistic, meaningful and lasting relationships in later life.

A co-educational school is also very successful in challenging sexist attitudes. Many subjects in secondary school allow for considerable classroom discussion and debate. In a co-educational school both the female and male perspectives will be explored in such discussions and this is a very important learning experience for all. In so doing they learn that ‘equality’ does not mean ‘sameness’ – that men and women often have different perspectives on the same issues and that each approach has a great deal to offer the other.

Advocates of single-sex schooling sometimes make exaggerated claims about the academic advantages of such schools, pointing to statistically significant disparities in examination results. In truth such differences may be due more to the socio-economic background of the pupils at the school or the selectivity of the intake.

Co-educational schools better reflect the diversity of our society; they better prepare students to succeed in post-secondary education and to eventually enter the workforce. Students in co-educational schools are also more likely to feel safe in their school environment. Research shows students in co-educational schools grow to be confident about expressing their views in the presence of members of the opposite sex, while collaboration between the sexes in the classroom helps develop confidence in students, who excel at university and beyond as leaders.

Teachers in co-educational schools recognise that some gender differences in learning do exist and are skilled in catering for diverse learning needs in the classroom. Furthermore, in a co-educational learning environment, students are exposed to both male and female role models in staff and senior students.

According to Professor Alan Smithers, director of education and employment research at the University of Buckingham: ‘There are no overriding advantages for single-sex schools on educational grounds. Studies all over the world have failed to detect any major differences’.

It has been proved that the students who have got their education under the co-education system are more confident compared to the students who have been learning in a single-sex school system throughout their educational career. Such students hesitate to interact with the opposite gender in their later lives; on the other hand a student who has learned under the co-education system freely interacts with the opposite sex and does not hesitate or feel uncomfortable in their presence. In a mixed schooling system both sexes can learn from each other and they can also share their ideas on different topics. Girls and boys have different points of view, so the mixed schooling system enables them to share their ideas and also creates a team spirit among them.

2. The advantages of single-sex schools

The age-old debate around single-sex schools versus mixed schools is back on the educational agenda once more, with experts from across the education sector still divided on the subject. The number of single-sex private schools may have halved in the last 20 years, but the advantages of single-sex schools have resurfaced yet again. This is partly due to recent news that girls in single-sex state schools get better GCSE results than those in mixed schools, including those from poorer backgrounds. The SchoolDash research found that 75% of pupils at single-sex schools achieved five good GCSEs compared to just 55% in mixed schools.

Why are single-sex schools good for education? Many educational experts believe that girls and boys have different learning needs and that in single-sex schools teachers can use particular techniques designed specifically to suit the gender of their students. Girls, for example, prefer collaborative and discussion-based learning, while boys can dominate discussions and group-based teamwork. By using gender-specific teaching techniques, staff at single-sex schools can get the most out of lesson time and enhance the learning experience for their students.

Some research into gender differences in learning even looks at how girls and boys respond differently to changes in temperature, suggesting that girls prefer warmer rooms while boys prefer to learn in cooler conditions. Single-sex schools make it possible to adapt the learning environment to suit the differing needs of boys or girls.

There is a widespread belief that single-sex schools help to challenge gender stereotypes and broaden the educational aspirations of both girls and boys. Single-sex schools enable girls and boys to feel free to learn and discover any subject, with girls able to pursue interest in male-dominated subjects such as maths and science and boys able to explore music and the arts. Indeed, at the 26 Girls’ Day School Trust schools and academies, girls are more than twice as likely to opt for science or engineering degrees at university level as girls nationally. According to multiple long-term studies of children from around the world, students achieve more and learn better in single-sex schools. An Australian study of 270,000 students found that both boys and girls performed significantly higher on standardised tests when they attended gender-specific schools. During an experiment in Virginia in 1995, 100 eighth graders were separated just for maths and science courses. Almost immediately, the girls began to achieve more, became more confident and participated more often in class. In 2001, a British study concluded that every girl, regardless of her ability or socio-economic status, performed better in single-sex classrooms than co-edones. The study of 9,954 high schools and 979 primary schools showed that while boys at the lowest end academically improved the most in single-sex schools, single-sex education was particularly beneficial to girls. Every one of the top 50 elementary schools in Britain are single-sex schools. At all-girls schools, teachers use the latest techniques in keeping with the female learning style. The textbooks and other materials do not have a male bias. Girls are more able to participate in class discussions since there are no boys around to dominate as in co-educational schools. Girls become more confident in themselves as students and earn higher scores in their examinations.

1. Note-making: Finding key points

You have been told to write an essay on the title: ‘Can money buy happiness?’

You have found the following text which seems relevant to this topic. It is part of an article by A. Penec in a journal called Applied Econometrics (volume 44, pages 18–27) published in 2013.

◊ Read it and underline the key points.

The measurement of happiness

Economists have recently begun to pay more attention to studying happiness, instead of just using the more traditional GDP per person. They have found that in the last fifty years there has been no apparent increase in personal happiness in Western nations, despite steadily growing economic wealth. In both Europe and the USA surveys have found no rise in the level of happiness since the 1950s, which seems surprising given that wealthier people generally claim to be happier than poorer people. In America, for example, more than a third of the richest group said they were ‘very happy’, while only one sixth of the poorest made the same claim. Although it would be logical to expect that rising national wealth would lead to greater general happiness, this has not happened. Individually, more money does seem to increase happiness, but when the whole society becomes richer, individuals do not appear to feel better off.

One possible explanation has been that people rapidly get used to improvements, and therefore devalue them because they are taken for granted. Central heating is a good example: whereas 50 years ago it was a luxury item, today it is standard in nearly every home. Another theory is that the figures for GDP per person, used to assess national wealth, do not take into account quality of life factors such as environmental damage or levels of stress, which must affect people’s feelings of happiness. The report of a commission set up by the French president recently claimed that the French were comparatively better off than had been previously thought, due to their generous holidays and effective health care system, factors which basic GDP figures had ignored.

The text contains five key points:

1. Economists have recently begun to pay more attention to studying happiness, instead of just using the more traditional GDP per person.
2. In the last fifty years there has been no apparent increase in personal happiness in Western nations, despite steadily growing economic wealth.
3. … which seems surprising given that wealthier people generally claim to be happier than poorer people.
4. One possible explanation has been that people rapidly get used to improvements, and therefore devalue them because they are taken for granted.
5. Another theory is that the figures for GDP per person, used to assess national wealth, do not take into account quality of life factors such as environmental damage or levels of stress.

2. Note-making

The next step is to make notes of these points, using paraphrase:

1. Economists have begun to research happiness, rather than rely on GDP.
2. Although W. economies have grown since 1950s, no parallel growth in happiness.
3. But more rich people say they are happy than poor.
4. Seems that people soon get accustomed to gains, so don’t appreciate them.
5. GDP does not measure environmental or social factors that affect individuals.

3. Writing a paragraph from notes

These points can now be combined into one paragraph of your essay, using conjunctions where necessary and including a reference to your source:

A recent development in economics is the study of personal happiness. Penec (2003) argues that although Western economies have expanded since the 1950s, there has been no parallel growth in happiness. Surveys indicate that rich people generally say they are happier than poor people, but this does not apply to the whole society. One explanation is that people soon become accustomed to gains and so do not appreciate them. It also seems likely that GDP measurement ignores significant social and environmental factors which affect personal well-being.

4. Practice A

◊ Continue the same process with the next section of the text by underlining the key points.

A further explanation for the failure of wealth to increase happiness is the tendency for people to compare their own position to that of their neighbours. Studies show that people would prefer to have a lower income, if their colleagues got less, rather than a higher income while colleagues got more. In other words, happiness seems to depend on feeling better off than other people, rather than on any absolute measure of wealth. Further research suggests that having free time is also closely linked to happiness, so that the pattern of working harder in order to buy more goods is unlikely to increase well-being. Yet Western societies generally encourage employees to spend as much time at work as possible.

5. Practice B

◊ Make notes on the key points.

a)

b)

6. Practice C

◊ Link the notes together to conclude this section of your essay.

7. Practice D

◊ Write a full reference for the source as it would appear in the list of references.

You are writing an essay on government intervention in family matters with the title: ‘Is there a role for the state to influence family size?’

◊ You have found two possible sources. Read the extracts and then complete the paragraph from the introduction to the essay using both sources.

1. The demographic revolution

Fifty years ago, overpopulation was seen as a major threat to human survival. But since then attitudes to family size have shifted significantly, so that many countries now have a fertility rate below the replacement rate of 2.1 children per woman. A recent poll asked people in 19 countries about their ideal family size, and also whether or not they would achieve their ideal, and why. In less than half the countries surveyed people actually have more children than the ideal; notably Nigeria, where the ideal is 5.4 children but in fact they have 7.7. But the majority of countries display the opposite: people have fewer children than the ideal. Greeks, for example, would like 2.6 children in their families, but are likely to only have 1.7.

One reason often given for limiting family size is financial, especially in countries which have been most affected by economic difficulties post-2009. The cost of education, especially private education, is a concern for many parents, as is the price of housing. In Spain, for instance, the average man cannot afford to set up his own household until the age of 30. But even in more dynamic economies such as China the fertility rate has fallen to 1.6, well below the replacement level. Urbanisation is an undoubted factor in discouraging large families, which are less of an asset when rural life is left behind.

Because couples are postponing getting married and starting a family for economic and social reasons, a new difficulty for older would-be mothers is actually getting pregnant. Many women in their 30s experience some problems, with an increasing number having to use IVF treatment. In addition to the suffering experienced by these families, many governments are increasingly concerned by the shortage of young working people to support the growing number of older citizens and their pensions.

(Deliban, K. Oxford Review,September 2016, pp. 45–6)

2. Childlessness

In many European countries it is becoming common for women not to have children. 22 per cent of German women in their early 40s, for example, are childless, and the figure is higher in cities, while the birth rate is only 1.5. In England childlessness is also common, at 17 per cent, although the birth rate is higher. But demographers argue that this is not a new situation, pointing out that in the nineteenth century and earlier many women delayed marriage for financial reasons or never married at all.

Social attitudes to childlessness are also changing, since it is decreasingly seen as something shameful. This may be due to the increasing economic necessity for both parents to work, especially in countries such as Japan where there is little provision for working mothers. Many well-educated women may simply prefer to follow their career path rather than raise children. Other reasons for childlessness include not finding a suitable partner or medical difficulties, especially among women whose postpone starting a family until they are over 30.

Although results vary from place to place, many studies have found that childless couples may often be happier than those with children, especially young children. Such people make significant contributions to society, being especially prominent (according to a German study) in setting up and running charities. They are also far more likely than couples with children to leave money in their wills to charity.

(Scarrow, W. and Langbein, R. The New Europeans,2014)

Complete the following introductory paragraph to your essay, ‘Is there a role for the state to influence family size?’ In the past governments have sometimes attempted to encourage or discourage their citizens from having children, for instance offering financial incentives for having extra children. Today there is evidence of a worldwide trend to reducing family size …

You are investigating risk-taking among adolescents and, in particular, whether anything can be done to mediate this. You have found two texts and below are excerpts from the abstracts of those texts.

♢ Read each text and make brief notes on what the author(s) say(s).

♢ Using your notes, decide whether the two sources are:

1. saying the same thing
2. saying different things
3. saying contradictory things

♢ Now write a two-sentence summary of both sources.

The development of paragraphs partly depends on the accurate use of conjunctions, words such as ‘then’ or ‘first’. Conjunctions are normally found at the start of a sentence, linking back to the sentence before, or in the middle of a sentence, joining the two parts together. There are six main types of conjunctions, each of which help to establish the meaning. Compare:

Demand for food is increasing because the population is growing.

Mechanisation has increased crop yields, yet production is still inadequate.

In the first sentence ‘because’ introduces a reason; in the second ‘yet’ indicates a sense of opposition.

Practice A

◊ Underline the conjunctions in the following sentences.

1. A few inventions, for instance television, have had a major impact on everyday life. 
2. Furthermore, many patients were treated in clinics and surgeries.
3. The definition of ‘special needs’ is important since it is the cause of some disagreement.
4. The technology allows consumers a choice, thus increasing their sense of satisfaction.
5. Four hundred people were interviewed for the survey, then the results were analysed.
6. However, another body of opinion associates globalisation with unfavourable outcomes.

Practice B

◊ Match each of the types of conjunction below to one of the preceding sentences.

1. Addition                 ( b )
2. Result                     (   )
3. Reason                   (   )
4. Opposition              (   )      
5. Example                 (   )
6. Time                       (   )

Practice C

◊ Read the following paragraph and underline the conjunctions, then decide what their functions are (i.e. types i–vi above).

Biofuels

Newly published research examines some important questions about the growing use of biofuels, such as ethanol made from maize. The production of these has increased sharply recently, but the replacement of food crops with fuel crops has been heavily criticised. Although initially seen as a more environmentally friendly type of fuel, the research shows that producing some biofuels, for instance biodiesel palm oil, is more polluting than using conventional oil. The ethanol produced from sugar cane, however, can have negative emissions, in other words taking carbon dioxide from the atmosphere instead of adding it. Consequently, it can be seen that the situation is rather confused, and that biofuels are neither a magic solution to the energy problem, nor are they the environmental disaster sometimes suggested.

Practice D

◊ Insert a suitable conjunction into each gap.

1. ……………. checking the equipment the experiment was repeated.
2. …………… most people use the train, a minority walk or cycle.
3. Brick is a thermally efficient building material. It is, ……………, cheap.
4. Demand has increased for summer courses, …………… extra ones are offered this year.
5. Many writers, …………… Chekhov, have been doctors.
6. …………… the increase in residence fees more students are moving out.
7. …………… Maria was in the lecture her car was being repaired.
8. …………… he was studying Italian he spent a semester in Bologna.

A well-written paragraph deals with one idea/topic only. This is known as paragraph unity and it follows that, when you have a separate idea/topic, you should start a new paragraph.

♢ Read this paragraph about children’s birthday celebrations and decide when the writer should begin a new paragraph.

Another key idea about paragraph organisation is the inclusion of a topic sentence, i.e. the sentence which tells the reader what the focus of the paragraph is.

♢ Read these two paragraphs and decide where the topic sentence is.

It is generally easier for the reader (and the writer!) to place the topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph and then follow with supporting information, reasons and examples, which expand on the idea. This way of writing paragraphs can be labelled deductive and is perfectly fine as a way to organise your writing.

If you feel you are confident and competent enough to vary your style, you might experiment with writing paragraphs in an inductive fashion, i.e. leading up to the topic sentence.

♢ Using these notes, create a paragraph which demonstrates an inductive style.

1. Practice A

◊ Read the following text and underline the errors.

Capitol punishment is the most awful penalty that the state can employ. Although it’s use has declined worldwide in the next fifty years, it is still practiced in a significant number of countries including, China and United States. It has strong opponents and supporters, leading to fierce debate about their effectiveness. The supporters of capital punishments argue that it deters criminals from doing big crimes such as murder, because they know that they risk death themselves. Although critics argue that most murders is committed without planning, and that researches shows that murder rate is not higher in countries which haven’t the death penalty. They also says that everyone should have the chance of reform, which may be achieved by a long period of imprisonment, and that state execution is a inhumane act. You can see that this is a subject that creates strong feelings, and clearly this controversy was likely to continue for many years.

2. Practice B

◊ Rewrite the text with all the errors corrected.

3. Practice C

◊ Make a list of the different types of errors found in the text, e.g. spelling, with examples.

Essay structure

◊ Read the essay carefully and then decide which of the following headings match each of paragraphs 1–7.

A. The impact of education

B. Discussion/example

C. Introduction – aims & overview

D. Conclusion

E. Other factors

F. Introduction – definitions

G. Limits of education

Title: ‘Education is the most important factor in national development – Discuss’

1. Education must be considered on several different levels, so that today most western countries are concerned with provision from nursery to higher education, while developing countries attempt to deliver basic education (e.g. reading and writing) to their people. ‘National development’ will be defined in this essay as the development of a country’s economy, since this is most commonly seen as the function of education provided by the state. For example, many European countries began providing primary education for all citizens in the late nineteenth century, in the early phase of industrialisation.
2. This paper attempts to evaluate the importance of these varying levels of educational provision in encouraging economic growth, compared to other factors such as national culture, natural resources and governance. The role of education in fostering development will be examined first, and then other factors affecting growth will be considered.
3. At its simplest, education sets out to teach literacy and numeracy. People who can read and count are capable of being trained for many roles in the industrial or service sectors, as well as learning by themselves. Even in the economies dependent mainly on agriculture, the education of women has been shown to lead to dramatic improvements in family welfare. In more developed economies further skills are required, such as languages, engineering and computing. Good education does not merely teach people how to function passively, but provides them with the skills to ask questions and therefore make improvements. At university level, education is closely involved in research which leads to technical and social advances.
4. Yet education does not operate in a vacuum: cultural, religious, legal and other factors all influence the rate of economic growth. Soviet Russia, for example, had an advanced educational system, but many graduates were under-employed due to the restrictions of the political system. Similar situations exist in many countries today because of political restraints on the economy which prevent fast enough expansion to create sufficient jobs. Clearly, development requires efficient and honest government to encourage a dynamic economy.
5. A strong work ethic, as found in the USA or Japan, also aids growth. In such societies children are brought up to believe that both the individual and society will benefit from hard work. Natural resources such as oil are another consideration. Brunei, for instance, previously a poor country reliant on fishing, today has one of the highest per capita GDPs in the world ($61,800 in 2020). A clear and effective legal system also encourages development.
6. It is difficult to think of a situation where education has been the principal agent in fostering growth. For example, in the world’s first industrial revolution, which occurred in eighteenth-century Britain, many people were still illiterate (some pioneer industrialists themselves could not read or write). It seems that the availability of capital through the banking system and a secure political and legal environment were more crucial in this case.
7. However, despite these considerations, education clearly has an important part to play in developing the skills and abilities of the people. Ultimately, they are the most important resource a country possesses, and their education is a priority for all successful states. (Approximately 600 words)

A coherent argument is one where the conclusion flows from the points which have been presented. These points can be referred to as the premises of the argument. In its simplest form, a coherent argument would be:

Premise 1: all modern birds have wings

Premise 2: penguins are birds

Conclusion: penguins have wings ♢ Read this shortened text and consider whether the conclusion results from the premises:

While the use of the word ‘magnificent’ is opinion-based and there is no indication in the opening paragraph about whether saving the red kite was thought to be ‘impossible’, the argument is coherent, as follows:

Premise 1: The red kite was in serious decline.

Premise 2: Action was taken to reverse the decline.

Conclusion: That action was successful and the red kite is now flourishing.

♢ Now read the following conclusion to an article about the cuckoo, a parasitical bird which lays its eggs in the nests of other bird species and allows the host to raise its young. Such behaviour labels it as a ‘brood parasite’.

♢ What are the premises which would lead to this conclusion?

♢ Now read this piece concerning why some birds cannot fly and write a suitable conclusion.

You have to discuss the issue of whether it is better to assess students by coursework or examination.

◊ Study the points in the table, showing the advantages and drawbacks of each alternative. Then combine them into one paragraph using the framework given, providing your own conclusion.

1. Comparison essay

◊ Read the following essay carefully and find:

1. A definition
2. An example
3. A generalisation
4. A phrase expressing cause and effect
5. A passive construction
6. A phrase expressing caution
7. Three synonyms for ‘internet-based teaching’

Title: ‘Compare classroom learning with internet-based teaching. Is the latter likely to replace the former?’

Since the late 1990s internet-based teaching (also known as e-education) has emerged as a potential rival to traditional classroom learning. It normally involves having access to a secure site on the internet where a graded series of lessons are available, and having assignments sent and returned by email. Although online courses are now offered by many institutions, it is by no means clear that they offer real advantages compared to classroom education. Little research has been done so far on their effectiveness, but this essay sets out to examine the advantages of both approaches and attempts to draw conclusions from them.

Two main advantages of internet use in education are generally put forward. Firstly, it is seen as more economical, since once a course is prepared it can be used by large numbers of students. The savings made by not having to employ so many teachers should be reflected in cheaper course fees. The second benefit is convenience; instead of having to attend classes at fixed times and places, students are free to study when they choose and progress at their own pace. Furthermore, by studying from home there is no need to travel to the college or university, saving both time and money. A student living in a small town in China, for example, can now study a course at an American college without the worry of travelling, accommodation or homesickness.

Despite the considerations mentioned above, classroom learning shows no signs of being replaced by e-learning. It seems that face-to-face contact with a teacher is still widely regarded as the best way for students to make progress, despite the expense and inconvenience involved. Not only the personal contact with a teacher, but also the support and encouragement gained from being part of a class may be one reason for this. Membership of a group may also create a useful spirit of competition, which stimulates learning.

Given the increasing pressure on university places in many countries, internet-based teaching is often seen as a convenient development. However, e-learning eliminates personal contact and travel from education, which are possibly the aspects many students value. Sitting at home working on a computer may be economical, but clearly cannot replace the social experience of attending courses. However, there are many people who are unable, either through work or family commitments, or due to lack of funds, to go to classes, and who would clearly find internet learning beneficial. Online courses can also be used to support taught courses, for instance by providing access to extra materials. In many ways these kinds of courses are similar to ‘universities of the air’, such as Britain’s Open University, which have successfully developed distance learning in the last forty years.

Faced by growing demand for university places, more institutions are likely to develop online courses, but the apparent benefits of e-learning may be less than are generally believed. Students seem to value the personal contact of the classroom highly, despite its cost and inconvenience. There may be a role for internet-based courses to supplement teacher-taught ones, and certainly for people with other commitments they will be the only practical option. There is an urgent need for research on the effectiveness of this type of learning, which should help maximise its advantages in the future.

(Approximately 550 words)

2. Essay structure

◊ Suggest a suitable heading for each paragraph of the essay.

a) ◊ Punctuate the following text and divide it into paragraphs.

a century old dh lawrence postcard found under a bed has significantly exceeded its estimate at auction to sell for thousands of pounds lawrence one of britains foremost literary figures wrote the postcard to louie burrows shortly before they became engaged to be married in 1910 the postcard which was inherited by louies great niece ros connolly had a guide price of £300 £500 when it went under the hammer but was bid up to £3000 jim spencer who works as a paper specialist at hansons the auctioneers said what a result i knew it would do well as we had intense interest ahead of the sale but to sell for ten times its low estimate is incredible the postcard awakened a love story from more than a century ago mr spencer said the couple never married but louie was engaged to lawrence from 1910 12 he must have broken her heart when he left her but she always remembered him with fondnessb) ◊ How would you describe the style of this text? Give your reasons.

a) ◊ Read the text and fill the gaps with the missing adjectives below.

randomised                  recent

poorest                         wealthy

mere                            boldest

unenviable                    improved

little                             nearby

A hard lesson

George Werner, Liberia’s Minister of Education, faced an a) ………… task in 2016. A civil war, followed by an Ebola outbreak, had deprived many children of an education. Yet those who attended school learned b) ………… Only 25% of women who had completed primary school could read, while his budget was a c) ………… $50 per child per year. So Mr Werner initiated one of the d) ………… public-policy experiments in e)………… African history. He outsourced 93 primary schools containing 8% of state school pupils to eight private operators. They were monitored in a f) ………… controlled trial. Researchers tracked test scores in the operators’ schools and g) ………… government ones. After three years, the results reveal the difficult reality of education reform in one of the world’s h) ………… countries. For instance, on one measure, reading speed, the private schools scored marginally better than the public ones, yet even those i) ………… speeds (15 words per minute) were only a fraction of those achieved in j)………… countries (100 words per minute). b) ◊ Find synonyms for the underlined verbs.

Purpose

Although the introduction to an assignment is what the reader will see first, it is often what the student will write last. That is because the introduction should be a reliable guide to what the main body and conclusion will say and the student does not know precisely what that is until after the other parts are written. At the end of the introduction, the reader should know why they are reading the assignment and what to expect.

Method

While not every introduction will follow the same pattern nor include all the same elements, there is a ‘flow’ from the general to the particular, with each step more tightly focused than the previous one.

Typically, then, an introduction might contain these elements:

♢ Read this introduction to an assignment with the following title and identify which of the five stages above is missing.

Assignment title: ‘Children’s emotional education is as important as their intellectual education. Discuss.’

♢ Consider this assignment:

How can emotional resilience* be best built amongst workers in the emergency services?

(*emotional strength, the ability to recover from personal setbacks and manage negative emotional experiences)

As part of the introduction, a student has written the following purpose statement:

Continue the introduction by writing the outline of that assignment.

Concept

Imagine that you are reading a detective novel. The story will have described a murder, introduced a range of characters and the detective will have examined a number of theories and, importantly, sought out evidence. Imagine this paragraph, right at the end of the book, where the detective is speaking to the assembled suspects:

And so, I can tell you, that when the victim was murdered with his own sword in his locked bedroom, I had to consider a number of theories about how it could have been done and, crucially, who had motive and opportunity to commit such a killing. I have considered three different ideas about the method and thought about which of you might have committed the murder, so my work here is now complete.

♢ What is missing?

The name of the killer. The detective has summarised his work but he has not given his conclusion, i.e. the name of the murderer.

We can see those elements in this conclusion to the following paper (the numbers inserted are mine):

Hartley, J. (2012) ‘New ways of making academic articles easier to read’. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 143–160.

(You should note that the style of writing in this paper is less formal than is usual, but it is in keeping with the writer’s thesis that academic writing (in psychology, at least) should be easier to read.)

Below is the beginning of a conclusion, which contains the announcement of the conclusion and summary of the areas covered in the paper. It is taken from this paper:

‘Ihle, F. M. (2011) ‘Using language knowledge to comprehend academic discourse’ [obtained from core.ac.uk]

and investigates the impact of teaching adolescent readers a technique called Text Pattern Intervention.

♢ Using your own intelligence, draw one or more conclusions from the summary and trace through the implications. It does not matter if you are correct, as long as the conclusion(s) is/are logical.

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Acknowledging other people’s work

This is an area in which there are different cultural traditions in different parts of the world. Wherever you are at university, you need to understand what is expected of you, in regard to showing whose ideas you have used. It may be different from the system you are used to!

All universities take this very seriously and may punish students who fail to acknowledge previous authors’ work. When students do this, it is referred to as plagiarism. It is helpful to consider what universities say about this.

Task 1

Below are quotations taken from the websites of the Universities of Nottingham (UoN), Oxford (UoO) and Edinburgh (UoE).

Read and compare what they say by completing the table.

‘Plagiarism means to pass off* someone else’s work, intentionally or unintentionally, as your own.’

*present

UoN: www.nottingham.ac.uk/studyingeffectively/referencing/plagiarism/index.aspx (accessed 15.06.24)

‘[Plagiarism means] presenting work or ideas from another source as your own, with or without consent of the original author, by incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement.’

UoO: www.ox.ac.uk/students/academic/guidance/skills/plagiarism (accessed 15.06.24)

‘Plagiarism is the act of copying or including in one’s own work, without adequate acknowledgement, intentionally or unintentionally, the work of another or your own previously assessed original work.’

UoE: www.ed.ac.uk/academic-services/students/conduct/academic-misconduct/plagiarism (accessed 15.06.24)

Avoiding plagiarism

Universities are very clear that they will not tolerate plagiarism. Fortunately, it is easily avoided through a process called referencing. There are different systems of referencing but the feature which they all share is that they enable the reader to find the source of ideas, theories, statements and data included in your work.

Even within the same university, different referencing systems are used, and it is your responsibility to find out and use the one which your academic department requires. The most widely used system is Harvard.

Task 2

Below are extracts from an academic paper which uses the Harvard system. The first page is an extract from a paper discussing how teachers and teaching might be assessed. The second is from the reference list at the end. What do you notice? Complete the table.

Extract from main body of the paper                  Extracts from the reference list

Points you notice:

Remember! 

Everything that is referred to in the main body of the paper must appear in the reference list

AND

Everything that is listed in the reference list must be referred to in the main body of the paper.

We use these verbs to acknowledge what other writers have said.

♢ Here are two examples. Notice the grammatical difference between the sentences:

1. Smith (1990) concludes that English cities grew considerably in the 1970s.
2. Smith (1990) examines the growth of English cities in the 1970s.

Some verbs require that + a clause. Others simply require a noun phrase. Some verbs can be followed by either. This table shows you the necessary grammar for some common reporting verbs.

Practice 1.

♢ Read the following paragraph and complete the table, according to the grammatical structure the verbs require.

Mark Anthony summarises Brutus’ criticism of Caesar with frequent use of the word ‘ambitious’ and states that Brutus is ‘an honourable man’. This, at first, suggests that Mark Anthony agrees with Brutus (and his fellow conspirators) and it is not until later in the scene that Mark Anthony suggests Brutus’ treachery.

[based upon speeches in Act III Scene II of Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare]

Right or Wrong?

Practice 2.

♢ Decide which of these sentences is grammatically accurate and correct the other two.

                                                                                                                                              √/X

When you are set an assignment, it is vital to understand exactly what you are being asked to do.

1. Firstly, there is the topic, usually with some form of context or limitation. In this example:

Compare and contrast the economic conditions of modern-day Aboriginal peoples in Australia and New Zealand

• the topic is the economic conditions of Aboriginal peoples;
• the context/limitation is Australia and New Zealand and also modern-day.

So your answer should restrict itself to just the economic conditions (NOT the social, political or environmental conditions) and to just those Aboriginal peoples in Australia and New Zealand (NOT in other countries). Finally, your answer should focus on modern-day or contemporary conditions (NOT historical).

2. The second aspect to consider is exactly what you are being asked to do, i.e. the instruction word(s).

♢ What are the instruction words in the title above and what do they require you to do?

♢ What are the instruction words in the following title and what do they require you to do?

Justify affirmative action as a means to redress the inequalities faced by indigenous people in Canada and comment upon those policies proposed by the Canadian government.

Here are some other common instruction words.

♢ Match the words to their meanings. The first one has been done for you.

♢ If you were set the following assignment title, what content would you need to include in the main body (NOT the introduction or conclusion)?

To what extent was the arrival of European settlers a disaster for the aboriginal peoples of Australia in the period 1788–1810?

Writing and getting feedback on academic assignments makes us realise that it is important to be as precise as possible with the ideas that we use but also to be tentative in the conclusions that we draw from them. You can pick up many pointers from reading academic texts when you notice how ideas are expressed.

For example, you are much more likely to read:

The review outlines the types of studies and age groups to which each method is most suited, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each. We conclude by summarising the particular methodological considerations that apply to each paradigm and to experimental design more generally.

rather than:

This review includes which type of studies fit with which type of research and each one’s pros and cons. At the end, what you should think about is listed, when you’re drawing up a design for a study.

You will notice that the meaning of each paragraph is broadly the same, so the differences are in the manner of expression.

♢ What differences do you notice? List them below.

So academic style requires the consistent use of formal language to express the ideas contained within it: complete sentences, impersonal language and unabbreviated expressions. However, there are other aspects to writing formally:

1. Being precise and clear in what you say
2. Reinforcing the points you make with evidence.
3. Being objective and dispassionate.
4. Giving a balanced viewpoint,
5. Admitting to limitations.
6. Being tentative or cautious in your conclusions.

♢ Below you will find examples of students’ writing which does not show these aspects. You should provide a corrected version. The first one has been done for you.

Imprecise                                             Precise version

Lacking evidence                                  Evidenced version

Subjective                                            Objective version

Imbalanced                                          Balanced version

Admitting no limitations                       Version admitting limitations

Being definitive                        Tentative version

You will have noticed that the characteristics of academic style listed above do not exist in isolation of each other and there is significant overlap between them. You should constantly review your writing to ensure that they are all achieved.

Overview

The following table shows the steps you should go through when planning an assignment. Two important steps have been missed out.

♢ Identify the missing steps.

Planning the actual writing

A reminder of Step 5:

The suggested order for the writing of any academic assignment is:

Main body > Introduction > Conclusion 

The reason for writing the main body first is that through the actual writing process students may gain a deeper understanding of the topic. As a result, what is included there may change and, in consequence, so may the conclusion. Since the introduction has to be a faithful guide as to what the reader may expect, you should leave that until last.

As regards the writing of the main body, Practice Materials F, G and H may be helpful.

In terms of length, the main body should represent 80% of the word limit for the assignment so, for a 2,000-word essay, the main body will be about 1,600 words. That 80% should be divided into sections, according to the different aspects of the topic necessary for your answer. Generally there will be between two and four sections in a typical 2,000-word assignment.

♢ Read this example – a part of the introduction to a paper:

Indigenous Participation in Australian Sport: The Perils of the ‘Panacea*’ Proposition

by Evans, J.R. et al.

*a panacea is a solution or remedy for everything

[Cosmopolitan Civil Societies Journal, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2015

ISSN: 1837-5391; https://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/mcs

CCS Journal is published under the auspices of UTSePress, Sydney, Australia]

The introduction continues to identify four sections the paper will address.

♢ Place the sections in a logical order. The first one has been done for you.