Introducing Translation Studies
Theories and Applications
Test your understanding of the foundational concepts within the chapter by using these flashcards.
Intralingual translation (Jakobson)
Rewording in the same language.
Interlingual translation (Jakobson)
Translation between different languages.
Intersemiotic translation (Jakobson)
Translation from one mode to another (e.g. verbal to non-verbal).
Applied translation studies (Holmes)
Translation theory applied to translator training, translation aids and translation criticism.
Audiovisual translation (AVT)
The translation of film and other screen products.
Subtitling
Translation of dialogue that appears in lines on the screen.
Dubbing
Spoken translation of a film, etc., synchronised with the actor’s lips.
Strategy (Vinay and Darbelnet)
Overall approach to a translation.
Procedure (Vinay and Darbelnet)
Micro-level decision in a translation.
Source language (SL)
The language of the text to be translated.
Target language (TL)
The language of the translation.
Source text (ST)
The text that is to be translated.
Target text (TT)
The translated text.
Metalanguage of translation
Terminology to describe the field of translation.
Word-for-word translation (Jerome)
A translation that operates one word at a time using the most frequent TL correspondent for each ST word.
Sense-for-sense translation (Jerome)
A translation that operates with units of meaning above the word level (e.g. phrase, idiom).
Free translation
A translation approach that manipulates the ST; sometimes refers to ‘sense-for-sense translation’. The term is not normally used in modern translation theory.
Literal translation
A translation that uses the closest TL correspondents but complies with TL grammatical structures. (Note that there are other definitions of ‘literal translation’, including ‘word-for-word translation’).
Faithfulness/fidelity
A term from early translation theory that stressed the need for the TT to be ‘loyal’ to the ST.
Metaphrase (Dryden)
Overly literal translation.
Paraphrase (Dryden)
Broadly, ‘sense-for-sense translation’.
Imitation (Dryden)
Adaptation.
xìn
Faithfulness. One of Yán Fù’s translation ‘difficulties’.
dá
Intelligibility. One of Yán Fù’s translation ‘difficulties’.
yǎ
Elegance. One of Yán Fù’s translation ‘difficulties’.
Linguistic universalism
consider that although languages may differ in the way they convey meaning and in the surface realisations of that meaning, there is a shared way of thinking and experiencing of that meaning
Linguistic relativity and determinism
claims that differences in languages shape different conceptualizations of the world.
Kernel (Nida and Taber)
The basic structural elements out of which language builds its elaborate surface structures
Linguistic meaning
The relationship between different linguistic structures.
Referential meaning
The denotative, ‘dictionary’ meaning.
Emotive or connotative meaning
The associations a word produces.
Formal equivalence
Formal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content aiming to have the message in the receptor language matching as closely as possible the different elements in the source language’.
Dynamic or Functional equivalence
Equivalence is achieved on the basis of equivalent effect. i.e. ,‘the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message’ (Nida 1964a: 159)
Denotative equivalence
Equivalence of the extralinguistic content of a text
Connotative equivalence
Equivalence related to the associations evoked by a lexical choice, especially between near-synonyms.
Text-normative equivalence
Equivalence related to text types, with different kinds of texts behaving in different ways
Pragmatic equivalence
Equivalence oriented towards the receiver of the text or message
Equivalence related to the form and aesthetics of the text, includes wordplays and the individual stylistic features of the ST.
Multimodality
Refer to a field of research and a phenomenon of communication that combines different modes, such as image, speech, writing or gestures.
Strategy
Term normally used to refer to macro-level solutions and an overall orientation of the translator. These are in a large part determined by the brief.
Procedure
Term used to refer to micro-level solutions, i.e. to the local decisions and specific techniques used by the translator at a certain point in a text.
direct translation (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1995/2004)
General translation strategy identified by V&D that corresponds to literal translation.
oblique translation (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1995/2004)
General translation strategy identified by V&D that corresponds to free translation.
translation shift
Linguistic changes occurring in translation of ST to TT.
unit of translation (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1995/2004)
“the smallest segment of the utterance whose signs are linked in such a way that they should not be translated individually”. In this respect, it is a combination of a ‘lexicological unit’ and a ‘unit of thought’.
formal correspondence (Catford 1965)
“Any TL category (unit, class, element of structure etc.) which can be said to occupy, as nearly as possible, the ” same” place in the ” economy” of the TL as the given SL category occupies in the SL” (Catford 1965: 27)
textual equivalent (Catford 1965)
“Any TL text or portion of text which is observed on a particular occasion … to be the equivalent of a given SL text or portion of text” (Catford 1965: 27)
Markedness
Relates to a choice or patterns of choices that stand out as unusual and may come to the reader’s attention.
corpus/corpora
A corpus is a large, principled collection of naturally occurring examples of texts stored electronically.
cognitive approach
Research approach focused on studying internal mental processes such as attention, perception, memory and decision-making.
Monolingual corpora
Collections of texts in the same language.
Comparable bilingual corpora
Collections of similar source texts in two or more languages which can be ‘mined’ for terminology and other equivalences.
Parallel corpora
Collection of ST–TT pairs aligned sentence-by-sentence or paragraph-by-paragraph.
corpus-driven’ research
Research that builds up from corpus data towards patterns and generalizations
corpus-based’ approach
Research that takes a pre-existing theory as its starting point and uses the corpus to test the theory.
relevance theory
Cognitive-based theory of communication that proposes human communication is guided by a principle of optimal relevance.
situated socio-cognitive approach
Socio-cognitive approach that emphasizes that knowledge and cognition are not abstract but are instead embedded within specific physical, social, and cultural contexts.
4EA approach
Interdisciplinary cognitive science framework that posits cognition is not solely confined to the brain but is influenced by the body, social context, environmental interactions, and emotions
keystroke logging
Keystroke logging is the act of tracking and recording every keystroke entry made on a computer.
eye-tracking
Eye-tracking refers to the act of recording the movements of the eyes, pauses and pupil dilation.
think aloud protocols
Research methods in which the translator is asked to verbalize their thought processes while translating or immediately afterwards (retrospective protocol), often with no prompting on content.
participant observation
Research method in which the researcher is immersed in the day-to-day activities of the participants.
Text type (Reiss)
Type of text categorized according to the predominant language function: informative, expressive or operative.
Genre (Reiss)
Variety of text that conforms to a text type: e.g., the genre ‘encyclopaedia’ is an informative text type.
Localization
The adaptation of a ST to the target locale.
Translatorial action (Holz-Mänttäri)
Views translation as purpose-driven intercultural transfer involving a number of actors.
Commission, or brief
The instructions given to the translator about the translation requirements.
Skopos theory (Reiss and Vermeer)
A theory that centres on the purpose of translation.
Functional adequacy (Reiss and Vermeer)
Fulfilling the requirements of the skopos.
The two rules of functional adequacy
The coherence rule and the fidelity rule.
Documentary translation (Nord)
The TT gives the reader access to the ST but is clearly a translation.
Instrumental translation (Nord)
The TT operates as if it were a text originally written in the TL.
Systemic functional linguistics (SFL)
A socio-semiotic theory of language developed by Michael Halliday. Used by Hatim and Mason, and others.
Register analysis (SFL)
Analysis of the contextual variables of a communicative situation: Field, tenor, mode.
Field (SFL)
What the text is about and how this experience is represented.
Tenor (SFL)
The relationship between participants in the communication.
Mode (SFL)
The form of communication (e.g. written, spoken).
Ideational function (SFL)
The strand of meaning that is associated with field.
Interpersonal function (SFL)
The strand of meaning that is associated with tenor.
Textual (SFL)
The strand of meaning that is associated with mode.
Lexicogrammar (SFL)
The vocabulary and structures that produce meaning.
Meaning potential (SFL)
The resources available to a language at any given point in a text.
Translation quality assessment (TQA)
The evaluation of the quality of a TT.
Covert translation (House)
A TT that operates as an original ST.
Overt translation (House)
A TT that does not hide its status as a translation.
Cultural filter (House)
Modification of culture-specific terms by the translator in order to make the text more accessible to the TT audience.
Thematic structure
Word order and information structure.
Significant or predominant linguistic features.
Cohesion (Halliday and Hasan)
How a text holds together linguistically through: reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, lexis.
Pragmatics
Language in use.
Appraisal framework (Martin and White)
A development of SFL’s interpersonal theory of language, focusing on evaluative choices.
Socio-narrative theory (Somers and Gibson)
How a story is built from multiple sources and experiences that confirm or challenge existing power structures. Used by Baker, Harding, Boéri, Sadler and others to investigate the ethical positioning of a text/translator.
Framing (Goffman)
The socially constructed interpretation of reality.
Literary system
a system of functions of the literary order which are in continual interrelationship with other orders
Polysystem
a system of various systems which intersect with each other and partly overlap.
Primary position
Position occupied by the system when it participates actively in shaping the centre of the polysystem
Secondary position
Position occupied by the system when it represents a peripheral system within the polysystem with no major influence over the central system.
Norms
Agreed forms of behaviour, partly prescriptive in nature, but weaker than rules.
Rules
Strong constraints supported by legislation and carrying legal penalties if broken.
Conventions
Informal forms of behaviour acquired by trial and error.
Initial norms
Refers to general choices made by translators
Preliminary norms (Toury 1995)
Refers to translation policy and directness of translation
Operational norms (Toury 1995)
Refer to the presentation and linguistic matter of the TT
Textual-linguistic norms (Toury 1995)
Govern the selection of TT linguistic material
Law of growing standardization (Toury 1995)
In translation, textual relations obtaining in the original are often modified in favour of more habitual options offered by a target repertoire
Law of interference (Toury 1995)
Interference from ST to TT is inevitable
Universals of translation (Toury 1995)
common tendencies identified in translated texts
Product or Expectancy norms (Chesterman 1997)
Established by the expectations of readers of a translation concerning what a translation should be like
Professionals
critics, reviewers, academics, translators
Patronage
individuals, groups, institutions
Post-translation studies
An interdisciplinary theory of translation, conceived in the 2010s
Gender studies
Examines how gender shapes societal structures, norms, and practices
Trans* studies
Examines gender identity and expression, particularly in regard to people who are not cisgender
Queer studies
analyses same-sex desire, non-normative sexualities, and critiques the treatment of dominant sexualities in texts
misrecognizing translation
Demont’s term for a translation that rewrites a text from a certain hegemonic standpoint
Minoritizing translation
Demont’s term for a specific, unidimensional strategy
queering translation
Demont’s term for a translation that aims to make evident and recreate the queerness of the source text
decolonial translation
like postcolonial translation, but stemming from a different intellectual and geographical background (Latin America)
reparative translation
In the words of Bandia, it ‘seeks to redress the inequities and power differentials resulting from the condition of colonisation and/or enslavement that are manifest in encounters between subaltern and dominant language cultures’.
inbetweenness
in-betweenness refers to the hybrid space where cultures intersect, challenge, and negotiate identities
third space
a hybrid, liminal space where cultures intersect and interact, challenging fixed identities and creating new meanings
postcolonial translation theory
Examines how translation reflects and shapes power dynamics between cultures, particularly in contexts marked by colonial histories
Translator invisibility
The minimization or erasure of the translator from the text or paratext, producing an illusion of transparency, according to Venuti
Translator visibiilty
The explicit presence of the translator in the text or paratext, foregrounding their role
Domestication
A translation stategy that produces translations in a transparent, fluent, ‘invisible’ style in order to minimize the foreignness of the TT (Venut)
Foreignization
A translation strategy that ‘entails choosing a foreign text and developing a translation method along lines which are excluded by dominant cultural values in the target language’ (Venuti)
A foreignizing translation strategy that amplifies minority or marginalized voices and perspectives (Venuti)
negative analytic
“The negative analytic is primarily concerned with ethnocentric, annexationist translations and hypertextual translations (pastiche, imitation, adaptation, free writing), where the play of deforming forces is freely exercised.” (Berman)
translator-activist
Four types: witness-bearer, voice-giver, vernacular mediator, the revolutionary
Sociology of translation
Studying the social nature of translation and the study of translators (‘translator studies’)
habitus
The broad social, identitary and cognitive make-up or ‘disposition’ of the individual, which is heavily influenced by family and education
field
A structured social arena with its own rules, power relations, and valued resources, in which agents compete to accumulate and convert different forms of capital (Bourdieu)
actor-network theory
A sociological approach conceived by Bruno Latour involving human and non-human actors interacting in a network
micro-history
A bottom-up method of analysing history; it concentrates on the fine detail of the life of an ordinary individual (or event) that throws light on the bigger societal picture of that time
paratexts
Refers to verbal and visual material in the peritexts (material inside the volume) or epitexts (material outside the volume)
hermeneutical approach
The investigation of what it means to “understand” a piece of oral or written speech, and the attempt to diagnose this process in terms of a general model of meaning
Steiner’s hermeneutic motion
A four phase model: initiative trust, aggresion, incorporation, compensation
Abusive fidelity
An experimental translation strategy, proposed by Philip Lewis, that involves risk-taking and intentionally tampering with standard language usage to match the expressive and rhetorical force of the original
Resistant difference
The tension and ambiguity arising from the differences between the source and target languages and cultures
Elective affinity
A concept by Steiner where the translator feels a deep, kindred connection to a text, recognizing themselves in it, which transcends resistant difference
Deconstruction
A philosophical movement, led by Jacques Derrida, that dismantles key linguistic premises by questioning the stability of meaning and the fixed relationship between signifier and signified
Cannibalist translation
A Brazilian postcolonial movement where the colonizer’s language is metaphorically devoured and absorbed to create a new, energized, and decolonized form of literature and language
Pure language
A higher, magical language that is released through the harmonization of the source and target texts, achieved via a word-for-word, literal translation (cf. Benjamin).
linguistic hospitality
Ricœur’s term for an ethical translation process respecting both the source and target cultures and languges
sacramental intake
when the target culture ingests and becomes enriched by the foreign text (Steiner)
Localisation
Translation and adaptation of a given product to meet the expectations of the target locale.
Transcreation
A translation-related activity that combines processes of linguistic translation, cultural adaptation and (re-)creation or creative re-interpretation of certain parts of a text.
Medio-translatology
An approach to translation developed by Tianzhen Xie that combines comparative literature with translation studies.
Variational translational theory
An approach to translation developed by Zhonglian Huang and focused on translations that are partial, abridged, ‘unfaithful’, interlingual or intralingual adaptations, or rewritings.
Communities of afinity
Communities of readers, viewers or users of translation organized around shared interests and expectations.
Fansubbing
Subtitling performed and distributed by fans online.
Computer-assisted translation (CAT)
Software tools that assist human translators work faster and more consistently by leveraging former translations via the use of translation memories and terminology databases.
Machine translation
Software tools that perform translation automatically without human intervention.
Translation unit
A segment of text that a translator treats as a single unit for the purpose of finding an equivalent in the target text.
Rule-based Machine Translation (RBMT)
A method of machine translation that relies on comprehensive sets of linguistic rules and dictionaries to translate text from a source language to a target language.
Statistical Machine Translation (SMT)
A method of machine translation that uses statistical models to translate text based on large amounts of existing human translations.
Neural Machine Translation (NMT)
A method of machine translation that uses artificial deep learning neural networks to translate text between languages by learning from large amounts of real-world text data.
Large Language Models (LLMs)
Advanced AI programs trained on large datasets of text and code, enabling them to understand, generate, and manipulate human language.
Post-editing
The process of reviewing and correcting machine-translated text by a human translator
Risk management
Risk management is the identification, evaluation, and prioritization of risks, followed by the minimization, monitoring, and control of the impact or probability of those risks occurring
The process of systematically assessing a translated text to ensure its accuracy, readability, and acceptability for a target audience.
Anthropomorphism of automated translation
Expression used to refer to the output generated by LLMs that reads and sounds as if produced by a human being.
Hallucinations
A response generated by AI that contains false or misleading information presented as fact.
Eco-translatology (生态翻译学, Shēngtài fānyì xué)
An approach developed by Hu Gengshen that builds on the notion of unity between man and nature and establishes a comparison between natural ecosystems and translational ecosystems.
Crowdsourcing
The practice of obtaining information or input into a task or project by enlisting the services of a large number of people, either paid or unpaid, typically via the internet
Collaborative translation
A process where two or more individuals or entities work together to create a translated product.
Translation ecology (Cronin)
A translation practice that gives control to speakers and translators of minority languages of what, when and how texts might be translated into and out of their languages
Consilience (Chesterman, drawing on Wilson)
The linking together of various methods of inquiry in order to advance knowledge.
Bio-semiotic theory of translation (Marais, drawing on Peirce and Gorlée)
Conceptualizes translation as a semiotic process of change. All translation is considered to be ‘intersemiotic’ communication between sign systems, operating under certain constraints.