Chapter 5: Helping Pupils Learn
Chapter 5 is about helping pupils learn. It has nine units – the ways pupils learn, active learning, teaching styles, improving your teaching, closing the achievement gap, neuroeducation, critical thinking, a language-rich classroom and pedagogy – the science, craft and performance of teaching.
There are two explainer videos in this section. One provides an overview of the chapter, while the other focuses on practitioner research to help you develop your teaching.
Helping pupils learn
Helping pupils learn by blending teaching approaches.
5.1 Ways Pupils Learn
The additional materials for 5.1 include a PDF of additional information and tasks, as well as the information from Table 5.1.1 – Psychological and cognitive research influences on education – to understand the relevant psychological and cognitive research. We’ve also provided a helpful video link about Piaget, as well as a useful link to a ResearchEd video on Dual Coding.
Supplementary Materials for Unit 5.1
We’ve added some additional information and tasks to help you engage further with this unit.
Table 5.1.1 Psychological and cognitive research influences on education
5.1 Factors for effective learning
In the unit column, add unit 5.3 to the following rows: Behaviourist Learning Theory; Social Learning (later Social Cognitive) Theory; Social Constructivist Theory; Constructivist Theory
The Piaget video in unit 4.3 will also be helpful here
| Theories | Key Propositions/Ideas | Implications for Learning | Main Theorists | Units |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Behaviourist Learning Theory | Started with experiments on animals; emphasises external stimuli for learning; concepts of operant and classical conditioning | Instructional learning, guided discovery, behaviour reinforcement/management | Pavlov (1897) Watson (1913) Skinner (1957) | 3.3, 5.3, 5.7 |
| Social Learning (later Social Cognitive) Theory | Emphasises impact of observational learning on cognition – abstract rules extracted from observing behaviour without such rules being explicitly stated; bridges behaviourist and cognitive-developmental theories | Peer learning, eg. ‘laddish’ ethos; modelling socially acceptable behaviour and norms | Bandura (1977) | 1.1, 5.3, 5.7 |
| Gestalt Theory | Perception driven by the brain’s search for ‘wholeness’; people reorganise information to impose order on it using principles of proximity, similarity, figure-ground, continuity, closure and connection | Provide big picture in advance of detailed information; ensure context is clear | Wertheimer (1923) Koffka (1935) Kohler (1940) | |
| Cognitive –Develop Mental Theory | Developmental maturation through stages needed for learning; experience of world leads to assimilation and accommodation of new concepts Extrapolation of stage theory beyond cognition to social, emotional and ethical development | Pupils only learn certain concepts when ready; provide pupil-centred discovery learning; concrete examples assist abstract thinking. Discuss moral issues; be alert to adolescent sensitivities | Piaget (1932) Kohlberg (1976) Selman (1980) | 4.3 4.5 |
| Meta cognition and Self-Regulation Theories | Learning to learn: understanding and controlling own learning strategies | Encourage techniques for remembering, ways of presenting information when thinking and approaches to problem-solving | Flavell (1979) Adey (1992, 2008) Shayer and Adey (2002) | 4.3, 5.5, 6.1 |
| Social Constructivist Theory | Knowledge is socially constituted and actively restructured through experience with the environment; language is central to development of thinking | Use group work, pupil talk and teacher scaffolding/structured intervention to promote higher level thinking | Vygotsky (1962, 1978) Bruner (1966) Wood 1988 | 5.3, 5.7 |
| Constructivist Theory | People make their own sense of things in a unique way by examining it in relation to prior conceptions and experiences and see to what extent it fits; existing conceptions are paramount | Avoid direct instruction – create situations which facilitate pupils constructing their own knowledge starting with their own mis/conceptions | Driver and Bell (1986) | 5.3 |
| Information – processing theory | Concept development involves reconstructing rather than recalling ‘schema’; key memory and retrieval processes are attention, analysis and retention. | Link new knowledge to what is already known; move from general to specific using sequential procedures; use key words and ideas to cue the learner; meaningful not rote learning. | Bartlett (1932) Baddeley and Hitch (1974) Rumelhart and McClelland (1986) | 5.3 |
| Cognitive Load Theory | CLT builds from IP theory; extraneous stimuli impedes pupils’ ability to process new information and to create long-term memories | Information overload and distractions must be avoided or limited | Sweller (1988) |
Cognitive Load Theory
View the series of simple videos on Cognitive load theory on YouTubePlay
Dual coding
Watch this video to explore how dual coding can help us organize ideas.Play
5.2 Active Learning
The additional materials for 5.2 include useful graphics on active learning concepts to support the unit.
Unit 5.2 Learning concepts infographics
5.3 Teaching Styles
The additional materials for 5.3 include examples of activities that teachers might use in the classroom, as well as flashcards based on Mosston and Ashworth’s ‘Continuum of teaching styles’,
Examples of activities that teachers might use in the classroom
- Mind maps
- Case studies
- Computer assisted learning
- Creative writing
- Directed Activities Related to use of texts (DARTS)
- Debating
- Designing
- Developing multimedia presentations
- Podcasts
- Animations
- Videos
- Diaries
- Drama/role play
- Formal presentations
- Games
- Interviewing
- Problem solving
- Reports
- Reciprocal teaching
- Role play
- Simulations
- Small group discussion.
- Surveys
- Teacher demonstration
- Visitors
Mosston and Ashworth’s ‘Continuum of teaching styles’
Use these flashcards to quickly test your understanding of the various teaching styles.
5.4 Improving Your Teaching
The additional materials for 5.4 include the practitioner research explainer video, as well as a useful ‘What is Action Research’ video link in YouTube. The author has provided a PDF of Lesson Reflection using Brookfield’s Lenses, which will support this approach to developing your own teaching from a research perspective.
Explainer Video: What is Practitioner Research?
The importance of reflection and research-based practice.
Additional Content for Unit 5.4
We’ve added some additional information to help you engage further with this unit.
What is Action Research?
Watch this video to learn more about action research.
Lesson reflection using Brookfield’s Lenses
5.5 Closing the Achievement Gap: Self-Regulation and Personalising Learning
For unit 5.5 we have included information based on Classroom approaches: teaching/pedagogical strategies.
Classroom approaches: teaching/pedagogical strategies
Factors in teaching and learning impact on the personalisation of learning; in this unit, self-regulation is considered in detail. Other concerns are noted here; each covered in this volume:
Grouping pupils and group work (see also Unit 2.3 and 4.1)
Collaborative group work is central to personalising learning – and differs from individual learning – so consideration of grouping options is helpful. Flexibility is key in ensuring a positive range of pupil experiences, and sometimes just for a refreshing change.
Assessment for Learning (see also Units 6.1 and 6.2)
Assessment for Learning (AfL) and assessment of learning are both relevant improving learning and teachers are exhorted to understand how the design of educational activities can enhance pupil learning through considering ‘assessment as part of pedagogy’ (Black and Wiliam, 2018, p.551).
The importance of questioning techniques (see also Unit 3.1)
The quality of questions both to pupils and from pupils is important, and the 1956 work of Bloom is a still much-used (often adapted) way of thinking about higher-order questioning. Numerous different versions of Bloom’s Taxonomy exist (Iowa State University, 2021), but a useful rule of thumb is to ensure that the higher-level aspects or types of thinking – analysis, evaluation and synthesis – are incorporated into all lessons (See Unit 5.2).
Task setting, problem-solving and investigations (see also Unit 5.2, 5.3, 5.9)
Real-life problems and in-depth investigations are preferable to disconnected tasks or isolated activities. ‘Thinking Actively in a Social Context’ (TASC) (Wallace, 2000), is a useful project planning and execution model for both long-term projects, and short-term activities. It is a flexible tool for thinking and discussing ideas and tasks, with no prescribed order for the various elements (below). The model can be presented in a circle with no specified start or end point.
- Gather/organise – What do I know about this?
- Identify – What is the task?
- Generate – How many ideas can I think of?
- Decide – Which is the best idea?
- Implement – Let’s do it!
- Evaluate – How well did I do?
- Communicate – Let’s tell someone!
- Learn from experience – What have I learned?
The model works well for all ages; there is guidance on its use on the National Association for Able Children in Education website (www.nace.co.uk/), along with many other helpful resources.
Cognitive issues: accelerated learning, learning styles and metacognition (see also Units 4.3, 5.1)
Some popular ideas about harnessing children’s cognitive processes have been controversial, such as the initially attractive notion of relying on ‘learning styles’, which has been shown as sometimes detrimental (Bjork et al., 2013). Metacognition, however, is more about focusing on how we learn and how we can improve our learning. Useful metacognitive techniques incorporate self-regulation, which helps pupils analyse their own strengths and weakness and develop their self-understanding in relation to their work (see Units 4.3 and 5.1 for more on multiple intelligences and metacognition).
5.6 Educational neuroscience: Classroom practice and the brain
The additional materials for 5.6 include the link to a website created by the author about the concepts in this chapter mapped to the ITT Core Content Framework and Early Career Framework. The author has also provided an Evidence Basis for this Unit annex that you can download.
Science of Learning
Neuromyths: true or false?
The author has created a website about the concepts in this chapter mapped to the ITT Core Content Framework and Early Career Framework. Use these materials to develop your understanding of Neuroeducation: The Science of Learning: https://www.scienceoflearning-ebc.org/
Annex to Unit 5.6: Evidence basis for this unit
5.8 Creating a Language-Rich Classroom
The additional materials for 5.8 include materials based on tasks in the unit. These are Task 5.8.1 Lesson Observation and Task 5.8.3 Incorporating Comprehension Strategies into Lessons, along with DART activities.
Task 5.8.1 Observing and analysing whole-class discussion
Search on YouTube for “lesson observation secondary” and choose a lesson snippet. Use this to complete this task.
Observe a five- to ten-minute episode of whole-class discussion.
Make a note of:
- How many conversational ‘turns’ the teacher takes.
- How many turns pupils take.
Reflect and evaluate:
- How far does the pattern of interaction fit the ‘IRF’ pattern described above? What happens in the ‘third turn’, when the teacher responds to the pupil?
- What does the teacher do to try to encourage pupil participation in the discussion?
- How successful are they in doing this?
Discuss your reflections with a peer and/or your mentor. Now pair up with a colleague and undertake the same exercise in one of the lessons you are teaching. Were the results what you had planned for? If not, why not? Record the outcomes of your reflections and discussions in your professional portfolio.ions and discussions in your professional portfolio.
Task 5.8.3 Incorporating comprehension strategies into lessons
Take a text for your subject that you might use in a lesson and create a lesson activity that explicitly teaches one of the comprehension strategies outlined previously, perhaps using a DART activity.
Write a short paragraph explaining the rationale for the task you have developed.
DART activities
Use these flashcards to test your knowledge of different types of DART activities.
5.9 Pedagogy: The Language of Teaching
The additional materials for 5.9 include PowerPoints and a video from the English Speaking Union on secondary school oracy and a guide to oracy skill sets. We have also provided the detail of Table 5.9.1 on Essential learning theories underpinning pedagogy. One of the authors has recorded a video on the cooking analogy and Table 5.9.2 Examples of terms describing pedagogic tools has been expanded into flashcards.
5.9 Building your secondary school oracy culture with the ESU
5.9 Boosting your students’ oracy skills with the ESU secondary school competition
Video 5.9 Boosting your students’ oracy skills with the ESU secondary school competition
5.9 Oracy skill sets: a guide
Table 5.9.1 Essential learning theories underpinning pedagogy
Behaviourism
- Observable performance: what learners must do
- Stimulus and response
- Environment, routines, cues, prompts habits, mastery, practice
- Generalisation leads to application of learning
- Rewards and sanctions based on response reinforce learning
- Reactive learners
Cognitivism
- Cognitive: thinking, problem-solving, processing
- Drawn from cognitive science; neuroscience
- Development of knowledge: reception, memory, organisation, retrieval
- Environment, explanations, think-aloud, modelling, feedback
- Active learners
Constructivism
- Learner makes meaning from experience
- Links practice, knowledge and context in authentic and meaningful learning experiences
- Problem-based applications
- Focus on process as well as outcome
- Metacognition, self-regulation
- Social and collaborative learners
Cooking analogy
The Cooking Analogy is a useful way to understand the relationship between teaching and technology.
Table 5.9.2 Examples of terms describing pedagogic tools
These flashcards have been created from Table 5.9.2, and should be used to test your understanding of terms used to describe key pedagogical tools.