Hecht (1993) introduced communication theory of identity to clarify how identities are formed and enacted through communication. The theory suggests that individuals possess four distinct yet interdependent layers of identity. The personal layer of identity is about how people perceive themselves or the personal characteristics they have. In an event where people ask you to describe yourself, you may think that your personal layer consists of a hard-working college student, a caring friend, a natural leader, or a loving sibling. The enactment layer of identity refers to the qualities people project through verbal and nonverbal styles of communication. For example, different regions of the United States have distinct dialects and accents, and people often enact their cultural identity by embracing their unique accent, dialect, or vocabulary (e.g., saying “Y’all” in the South). The relational layer of identity is developed through personal relationships with other people. Our identity is defined by the type of relationship we have (e.g., parent, romantic partner, boss) and is shaped by how others see us (i.e., they can help or hurt our identity that we wish to present). The communal layer of identity emerges out of groups or networks we belong to (e.g., cultural groups, ethnic groups, religious groups, professional organizations). People learn about their identity through group memberships. For example, for many people from the United States, individualism is at the core of their identity, and thus, people are likely to ascribe to qualities that define this particular cultural group, such as independence, self-reliance, and outspokenness. One application of the theory has been used to understand how refugees make sense of, enact, and renegotiate their identity during adjustment to a new host country (Bergquist et al., 2019). Kam and Hecht (2009) examined the role of identity in grandparent-grandchild relationship and found that when young-adult grandchildren perceive that they are sociable and talkative (personal layer) but are quiet in front of their grandparents (enacted frame), they are more likely to engage in topic avoidance and be less satisfied with their communication and relationship with grandparents. The theory provides a framework for understanding social behavior as a function of identity through communication.  

References and other suggested readings:  

Amado, S., Snyder, H. R., & Gutchess, A. (2020). Mind the gap: The relation between identity gaps and depression symptoms in cultural adaptation. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1156. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01156 

Bergquist, G., Soliz, J., Everhart, K., Braithwaite, D. O., & Kreimer, L. (2019). Investigating layers of identity and identity gaps in refugee resettlement experiences in the Midwestern United States. Western Journal of Communication, 83(3), 383–402. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2018.1552009 

Hecht, M. L. (1993). 2002 – A research odyssey: Toward the development of a communication theory of identity. Communication Monographs, 60(1), 76–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637759309376297 

Hecht, M. L., & Choi, H. J. (2012). The communication theory of identity as a framework for health message design. In H. Cho (Ed.), Health communication message design: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 137–152). SAGE. 

Kam, J. A., & Hecht, M. L. (2009). Investigating the role of identity gaps among communicative and relational outcomes within the grandparent-grandchild relationship: The young-adult grandchildren’s perspective. Western Journal of Communication, 73(4), 456–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570310903279067 

Murray, C. L., & Kennedy-Lightsey, C. D. (2013). Should I stay or go?: Student identity gaps, feelings, and intent to leave. Communication Research Reports, 30(2), 96–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2012.762894

Communication accommodation theory was developed to explain how and why people adapt their speech and language patterns when interacting with others. The theory proposes that people change their communication patterns as a means to increase or decrease the connection to a conversational partner. In other words, people adjust their dialects and words either in an effort to match with (i.e., convergence) or deviate from others (i.e., divergence). There are many linguistic strategies that people use when communicating with others. For example, you may notice that when interacting with someone from Great Britain, you switch your American accent to a British accent and modify the words you use (e.g., referring to the restroom as the “loo”). When talking to your five-year-old niece, you may use shorter sentences, speak more slowly, and discuss topics that are interesting and appropriate to this age group. When people match the communication behaviors of a conversational partner, it signals liking, closeness, and solidarity. In contrast, people diverge their speech and language patterns as a way to show power, distinction, or cultural pride. For example, in a study that examined stepparent-stepchild interactions, Speer et al. (2013) found that stepchildren’s perceptions of stepparent accommodative behaviors during their typical interactions fostered shared family identity, increased relational closeness, and improved satisfaction with blended family life. The theory provides insight into how communication partners influence each other in the course of interaction.  

References and other suggested readings:  

Barlow, M., Watson, B., Jones, E., Morse, C., & Maccallum, F. (2024). The application of communication accommodation theory to understand receiver reactions in healthcare speaking up interactions. Journal of interprofessional care, 38(1), 42–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/13561820.2023.2249939  

Dragojevic, M., Gasiorek, J., & Giles, H. (2015). Communication accommodation theory. In C. R. Berger & M. E. Roloff (Eds.), International encyclopedia of interpersonal communication. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic006 

Giles, H., & Soliz, J. (2014). Communication accommodation theory: A situated framework for relational, family, and intergroup dynamics. In D. O. Braithwaite & P. Schrodt (Eds.), Engaging theories in interpersonal communication: Multiple perspectives (2nd Ed., pp. 161–175). SAGE. 

Giles, H., Bernhold, Q., & McCarty, D. (2024). Prejudicial nonaccommodative moves: the cycles of intergroup communication experience. In Research Handbook on Communication and Prejudice (pp. 76–90). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781802209662.00012 

Giles, H., Maguire, E. R., & Hill, S. L. (2024). Policing at the crossroads: An intergroup communication accommodation perspective. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 27(5), 1107–1127. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302241245639   Speer, R. B., Giles, H., & Denes, A. (2013). Investigating stepparent-stepchild interactions: The role of communication accommodation. Journal of Family Communication, 13(3),218-241. https://doi.org/10.1080/15267431.2013.768248

Anxiety/uncertainty management theory emphasizes that people are not always motivated to reduce uncertainty and that uncertainty isn’t inherently bad. In the face of illness or cancer, for example, having some uncertainty about one’s health condition can keep hope alive. For some people, uncertainty is preferable to the potential knowledge because maintaining some level of uncertainty means continued hope. The theory highlights that instead of focusing on reducing uncertainty, people use various communicative and psychological strategies to manage it. People may seek information to feel more secure about something or rely on the social support of others to regain hope in times of high uncertainty. People may also choose to manage their uncertainty by balancing their needs for certainty. For example, Brashers and colleagues (1999) found that people living with HIV learn to adapt to their chronic uncertainty by focusing on short-term plans and goals rather than being consumed by longer-range and more uncertainty-producing goals. Brashers (2001) argued that the emotional responses to uncertainty that people experience depend on their appraisal of ambiguous situations. If people perceive uncertainty as dangerous and leading to harm, they are likely to experience negative emotions. If people think uncertainty is a preferred state (i.e., when not knowing is better than knowing), positive emotions are likely to occur. When it doesn’t really matter if people know or not know about an issue, it may lead to neural emotional responses. Indeed, the central premise of anxiety/uncertainty management theory is that uncertainty is neither inherently good nor bad; rather, people manage uncertainty resulting from situations that are unfamiliar, complex, or unpredictable.  

References and other suggested readings:  

Afifi, W. A., & Matsunaga, M. (2008). Uncertainty management theories: Three approaches to a multifarious process. In L. A Baxter & D. O. Braithwaite (Eds.), Engaging theories of interpersonal communication: Multiple perspectives (pp. 161–173). SAGE. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483329529.n9 

Brashers, D. E. (2001). Communication and uncertainty management. Journal of Communication, 51(3), 477–497. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2001.tb02892.x 

Brashers, D. E., Neidig, J. L., Cardillo, L. W., Dobbs, L. K., Russell, J. A., & Haas, S. M. (1999). “In an important way, I did die.” Uncertainty and revival among persons living with HIV or AIDS. AIDS Care, 11(2), 201–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540129948090 

Hsu, Y. S., Chen, Y. P., Chiang, F. F., & Shaffer, M. A. (2024). Bridging the expatriate and host country national knowledge transfer gap: Managing interaction anxiety and uncertainty. Journal of Knowledge Management, 28(7), 1867–1888. https://doi.org/10.1108/jkm-02-2023-0128 

Knobloch, L. K., & McAninch, K. G. (2014). Uncertainty management. In C. R. Berger (Ed.), Handbooks of communication science Volume 6: Interpersonal communication (pp. 297–319). Walter de Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110276794.297 

Presbitero, A., & Attar, H. (2018). Intercultural communication effectiveness, cultural intelligence and knowledge sharing: Extending anxiety-uncertainty management theory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 67, 35–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2018.08.004 

Prince, A. G. (2021). Managing anxiety and uncertainty: Applying anxiety/uncertainty management theory to university health professionals and students’ communication. Journal of Communication in Healthcare, 14(4), 293–302. https://doi.org/10.1080/17538068.2021.1913946